A profilometer is an instrument that measures a surface profile to determine its roughness. A surface’s vertical resolution is normally measured at the nanometer level, with lateral resolutions being measured to a less accurate degree. Over the past decade, profilometers have started using laser technology in order to improve the degree to which a surface can be measured without having to physically touch the profile being measured. The most recent laser profilometers have been able to map surfaces in 3D, thereby displaying form and texture over a large area. How Read More

A quantum bit, otherwise known as a qubit, is one of the units used when dealing with quantum information. Another way to look at a qubit is that it is a state vector which is an object of math that can describe different quantum systems. In the case of the qubit, that quantum system is a two-level quantum-mechanical system. One of the biggest discussions when dealing with the qubit is its comparison to the traditional or classical bit when dealing with computer information. Bit vs. Qubit A bit is one Read More

Hydronic heating is when tubing that contains hot liquid is run beneath a home’s floor. It uses radiant heating to heat a structure. This technique has become more popular with families who want to live in an energy efficient home and want lower heating bills. Hydronic heating also allows homeowners to control the temperature by room or heating zone, which allows infrequently used rooms to be kept at a lower temperature than those used more often. How Does Hyrdonic Heating Work? Hydronic heating systems circulate hot water or other liquid Read More

When looking at a microwave, one of the things they often times see is a metal rack in there which causes confusion. However, people have always been taught that putting metal in the microwave is incredibly dangerous and can destroy the microwave. The question that they ask, then, is: why can't I put aluminum foil, for example, into the microwave, but I can have a metal rack? The answer lies in the way the atoms of metal work and how a microwave works. A microwave heats up what is put Read More

Isochronic tones are used in brain entrainment. When a single isochronic tone is repeated rapidly and a pause of silence follows each pulse, the brain produces a similar frequency. Isochronic tones can change a person’s mood, affect a person’s physical attributes, and produce effects such as lucid dreaming, out-of-body experiences, or hypnosis. Isochronic tones are similar to binaural and monaural beats but differ because they do not change. How Brain Entrainment Works Brain entrainment is a relatively new field of study that involves frequency production in the brain. When the Read More

The cause of dreams is not known concretely. However, there are a series of theories that many psychologists present about the origin of dreams and, more importantly, the cause of them. Each theorist is unique and, until recently, few were based on science because there wasn't much neurological understanding. With the arrival of science, though, entirely different theories appeared about the different types of dreams. Freud on Dreams Sigmund Freud is known for saying that dreams were "the royal road to the unconscious." He felt that one could figure out Read More

It is common for those who receive hard water all over the world to attempt to find a plausible technique or treatment system to soften the water. Magnetic water treatment is a way to eliminate or reduce the water’s hardness. This technique is also referred to as Anti-scale Magnetic Treatment” (AMT). Those who magnetically treat water claim that passing water through a strong magnetic field changes water molecules and eliminates the need to chemically soften water. These claims are quite controversial as they have not been proven scientifically. How Does Read More

Vegetable glycerin is a carbohydrate that is usually derived from plant-based oils and is used in consumer products like cosmetics and electronic cigarette liquids. A commonly used term for vegetable glycerin is vegetable glycerol. Vegetable Glycerin (VG) is organic. In order for it to be considered “food-grade” it must be 99.7% pure and the remaining percentage must be water. VG is naturally sweet, but since it is metabolized in a manner different from the way  sugar is, it is not known to raise the blood sugar level in people. It Read More

There are five states of matter that occur when physical forces are applied to them. These states are fairly easy to understand when their physical properties are observed. Depending on the type of matter that is being dealt with, the state of the matter may be more difficult to reach when applying these physical stressors. The best way to understand the state of matter is to choose matter that reaches the state the easiest and observe it. Bose-Einstein Condensates as a State of Matter The Bose-Einstein Condensate is a very special phase of Read More

Soil, together with water and air, is one of the three key natural reserves. Without soil, there would not be any form of natural vegetation or life. Soil comprises of layers of varying depth and form. The ratio of each of these components is vital in establishing the type of soil present in an area. Other factors such as climatic conditions, nearby topography, human activities and so on also determine the soil type. The basic types of soil layers are as follows: Organic matter This layer is the refuse layer Read More